The European Commission has ruled that Apple should repay up to €13 billion ($14.5 billion) in back taxes to Ireland. After a three year investigation, the Commission concluded that Apple’s tax benefits are illegal and that Ireland enabled the US firm to pay far less tax than other companies between 1991 and 2015. In fact, Apple avoided paying tax on nearly all of its products sold across the EU’s single market, paying an effective tax rate of 1 percent in 2003. That fell further to 0.005 percent by 2014. Apple and the Irish government criticized the ruling, with Irish finance minister Michael Noonan announcing he would appeal it.

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